ARCAA Contents & Abstracts Volume 10, 1995

ISBN 978-0-89641-235-4

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    Mental Preparation Techniques with Elite Athletes Using Computerized Biofeedback and VCR Boris Blumenstein, Gershon Tenenbaum, Michael Bar-Eli, Joan Pie — This article presents a two-stage technique which is aimed to mentally prepare athletes for competition. The technique consists of biofeedback (BFB) and Video Camera Recorder (VCR) equipment which accompanies relaxation or excitation technique. During the first stage, the athlete is introduced to the BFB and thus learns how to consciously control his/her psycho physiological responses. At the second stage he/she learns to shift arousal levels voluntarily and to sustain this state as long as he/she wishes. Subsequently, competitive mental images are practiced before and/or after competition. The interaction between sport specificity and the required mental characteristics required is discussed. Applying this mental technique with BFB and VCR to elite athletes resulted in substantial positive outcomes. (1-15)

  • A Preliminary Investigation of Expected Aggression in the Sport of BaseballChris S. Strobel, David L. Cook, Carolyn M. Hoffman — This descriptive study was designed to examine the level of aggression in the sport of baseball, to determine in what situations acts of aggression were seen as appropriate, and to determine if players felt remorse if an opposing player was injured as a result of their act of aggression. The subjects (n=49) were professional minor league baseball players ranging in age from 19-26 years. The Baseball Aggression Questionnaire was administered to the subjects. Overall, it was determined that in nine of the fourteen game situations, the subjects agreed that an act of aggression was appropriate and expected to be performed. These acts ranged from the pitcher hitting an opposing batter, to sliding hard at the baseman's knees to break up a double play, to running over the catcher if the plate is being blocked, and to leaving the bench and heading onto the field when a team member charges the mound. In no situation, however, did the subjects agree that the pitcher should throw with the intent of hitting the batter in the head. It was also determined that in none of the 14 situations did the subjects' responses indicate that they should feel remorse if the act of aggression injured an opposing player. The results of this study were discussed in reference to attribution theory, frustration/aggression theory, instrumental aggression, and pressure to adhere to "unwritten rules." (16-31)

  • Anticipation of Soccer Goalkeepers When Facing Penalty Kicks to the Right and Left of the Goal Using Different Kicking Techniques Terry McMorris, Bryn Hauxwell, Tim Holder — The purpose of this study was to compare soccer goalkeepers' ability to anticipate the direction of penalty kicks at three temporal occlusion points, when the penalties were struck with the inside of the foot or the instep and to the right or left of the goal. The subjects (N=10), goalkeepers playing in semi-professional soccer, were shown a video of penalties taken with the inside of the foot and the instep and directed to the left and right of the goal. The video was shown on a television monitor and a temporal occlusion paradigm was used, with the video being stopped at 2 frames before contact (–2), one frame before contact (–1) and at contact. The subjects marked on a scaled map of the goal where they thought that the ball would cross the line. Radial error was calculated. Post-hoc interviews were carried out to determine what cues the goalkeepers claimed to use to aid anticipation. A three way ANOVA (with three repeated measures) and, where appropriate, post-hoc Tukey tests demonstrated significant main and interaction effects. Kicks to the right of the goal were anticipated significantly (p<0.01) more accurately than those to the left. The at contact occlusion point proved to be significantly (p<0.01) more accurate than the other two points, which did not differ significantly (p>0.05) from one another. There was no significant effect for type of kick. A three way interaction effect showed that for the instep kick the –1 condition produced significantly poorer results for kicks to the right than the other occlusion points to the right. Although not significant, a similar trend was found for the –1 condition for instep kicks to the left. In the post-hoc interviews all subjects claimed to use angle of approach to the ball and foot position at contact as key factors aiding anticipation. It was concluded that goalkeepers should practice facing penalty kicks to their left and that there may be some advantage for penalty takers in using the instep kick instead of the inside of the foot technique. Furthermore it was claimed that goalkeepers should take account of their speed of movement before deciding whether or not they can wait until at contact cues are available, before initiating their response. (32-43)

  • Kinematic Analysis of Rope Velocity in RodeoMichael C. Meyers, William A. Skelly — There is substantial research defining, analyzing, and applying kinematic principles to throwing rigid projectiles in traditional sports. Within the last decade, audiences have gained an appreciation of the sport of rodeo as a viable athletic event. Comparison with more traditionally researched athletes, however, has lacked the sport-specificity required for proper skill analysis and improvement in this sport. At the present time, no previous studies have investigated the kinematic aspects of rodeo and the use of a rope as a projectile in sport. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to quantify rope velocity during simulated competition, and assess/compare etiological factors, forces, and limitations involved during task performance in roping to other throwing sports. Following written informed consent, five rodeo athletes presently competing at the collegiate/professional level. Following a warm-up period, comprised of ten throws of a nylon rope (1.27 cm diameter, 9.1 m in length) at a stationary mechanical bovine target while standing on the ground, each subject performed five rope throws at a measured throwing distance (2.4 m) and angle of projection (approximately 40° below horizontal) typically observed in the roping events while on horseback. Task performance was filmed and digitized using a Peak 3D Module System (Peak Performance Technologies, Englewood, CO) and subject to SAS analyses using appropriate Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) procedures, and graphed against time. ANOVAs indicated that initial linear velocities ranged from 14.1 to 17.0 m/s, significantly decelerating (p<.05) to mid‑trajectory velocity rates of 7.7 to 11.0 m/s. Final velocities at target impact ranged from 3.6 to 5.1 m/s. No significant differences (p>.05) were found between subjects. Mean initial, middle and final velocities were 16.2, 8.7 and 4.5 m/s, respectively, resulting in an overall mean velocity of 10.1 m/s, over a total throwing distance of 2.4 m. In comparison, mean initial/release velocities of a thrown rope were 30-60% lower than traditional sport projectiles. The use of kinematic analysis have substantial application in this sport. Further skill assessment and comparison to other sports concerning musculoskeletal requirements, motion characteristics, mechanical efficiency, and the complexity of forces/variables encountered in rodeo is warranted. (44-53)

  • Complex Skill Acquisition: Generalizing Laboratory-based Principles to FootballKip Corrington, Wayne L. Shebilske — Laboratory-based principles of training are evaluated and applied to the sport of football. The evaluation cautions against the use of Adaptive training and traditional Part-task training methods. Hierarchical part-task training is effective in research laboratories, but may be impractical in real practice situations. The Multiple Emphasis on Components (MEC) protocol is recommended for learning "keys", and various modes of implementing MEC are discussed. Hierarchical control, which fosters error correction, is postulated as the basis for the proposed effectiveness of MEC in training novices and experts. A recommendation is made to make research more representative of sports training by developing tasks that simulate actual response kinematics. Finally, a call is made for researchers and practitioners to collaborate in order to design the most effective training protocols. (54-69)

  • The Effects of Preparatory Arousal on Sixty-Meter Dash Performance Kellie Green Hall, Brent Erickson — The purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of preparatory arousal on 60-meter dash performance. Subjects were 15 male sprinters from the University track team. The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) was administered following both the control condition and the preparatory arousal condition to determine if the preparatory arousal strategy did change the competitive anxiety level of the subjects. Five races, including three subjects each, were run under two different conditions, and these were counterbalanced to control for an orders effect. For the control condition sprint, the subjects were given one minute to listen to the "Rocky" theme song and get themselves as emotionally "charged-up" as possible prior to an identical dash. Times were recorded using an Accutrak machine and results of a dependent t-test indicated that the subjects ran significantly faster following the use of the preparatory arousal strategy (p<.05). Results from the CSAI-2 also revealed that the subjects were significantly higher in somatic anxiety following the preparatory arousal strategy (p<.05). Thus, the preparatory arousal strategy of listening to energizing music and consciously trying to "charge-up" for one minute prior to a sprint, was an effective way to change the competitive anxiety level of the sprinters and resulted in faster times. (70-79)

  • The Actor-Observer Bias in Sport Judy L. Van Raalte, Britton W. Brewer, Albert J. Petitpas — Two experiments were conducted to examine the actor-observer bias in sport (Jones & Nisbett, 1972). It was hypothesized that coaches would tend to explain athletes' behavior as due to dispositional (internal, stable) factors, while athletes would tend to explain their behavior as due to situational (external, unstable) factors. In Experiment 1, 165 undergraduates read scenarios from the perspective of coach or athlete. Subjects who imagined that they were coaches were more likely than subjects who imagined that they were athletes to indicate that an athlete's badmouthing a coach was due to internal characteristics and that not hustling in practice was due to stable characteristics. In Experiment 2, 42 athletes and 22 coaches read two of the scenarios used in Experiment 1. Coaches made significantly more internal attributions for an athlete not hustling and for badmouthing the coach than did athletes. Implications of the actor-observer bias for explaining misunderstandings in sport situations are discussed. (80-92)

  • Student Trainer's Perceptions of HIV/AIDS Status of Individuals Involved in AthleticsSteven R. Snowden, Richard K. Bomgardner, Michael A. Sutliff — Student trainers from thirteen universities in five states were surveyed with respect to four areas relating to AIDS and athletics. A total of 103 students responded, for a return rate of 81.8 %. The knowledge base of the student trainers on AIDS was excellent with a correct response rate of 95 %. However, when asked about right to privacy, possible mandatory testing, and other socially relevant questions, responses were almost evenly split between yes, no and unsure about these troublesome issues. Clearly, student trainer responses mirror the concern of all those associated with athletics and the ever-growing problem of AIDS. (112-123)

  • Athletic Injuries: Individual and Group Concerns for the High School Coach Greg Shelley, Keith Henschen — Information regarding the emotional/ psychological reactions following athletic injury is presented and discussed in relation to the role of the high school coach. Both individual and group concerns are outlined. Special attention is given to adolescent perceptions and the corresponding group changes resulting from player injury. Several coaching guidelines are presented for assisting the injured athlete throughout the injury-rehabilitation process and during the athlete's return to practice and competition. (124-140)

  • Looking for an Audience: Marketing University Women's Basketball: An ExplorationLaurel J. Reid, Georgia Kovich — This article describes how women's basketball programs can be effectively marketed to audiences. The paper explores the marketing process in relation to the marketing mix "4 Ps" (product, price, promotion, place) and provides examples of successful approaches to each element of the mix. The authors then apply these marketing constructs in an exploratory descriptive investigation of select women's basketball programs in Canada and the United States. The focus of the study was to describe marketing practices used by these programs in order to isolate elements that contribute to effective marketing. The paper concludes with recommendations for both practice and research. (141-170)

  • Health Behaviors and Health Status Comparisons of Former College Athletes and Non-AthletesCheryl Tucker Rainey, Roger Sargent, J. Wanzer Drane, Robert F. Valois, Dianne S. Ward — Former collegiate athletes (FA) (N=324) and non-athletes (NA) (N=180) were compared for differences in physical activity, smoking behaviors, dietary habits, and health status. FA reported higher levels of current physical activity (p<.0001), were less likely to have ever smoked cigarettes (p<.001), and consumed fewer carbohydrates (p=.008) than the NA. Fifty-three percent of the FA indicated that their athletic experience had a "very positive" effect on their current exercise habits. (171-190)

  • Thinking Ahead: A New Perspective (The Coaching Process and the Principle of Consequence)Cheyne A. Sherman, Rob Sands, Wayne Maschette — Principles of coaching have been developed to assist coaches in the application of a more scientifically based approach to improving their athletes. The notion of consequence, as another important principle to be distinguished, is discussed in this paper using practical examples to highlight the issues underlying the principle. Coaches are encouraged to increase their knowledge base and attempt to predict outcomes of training sessions so as to provide greater physiological and psychological benefits. Injury prevention also becomes a stronger possibility when training loads and sessions include the scope of greater forethought concerning the possible stresses that may occur as a consequence of overtraining. (191-200)

  • A Comparative Analysis of Expert and Novice Basketball Coaches' Practice Planning Dennis Floyd Jones, Lynn Dale Housner, Alan S. Kornspan — The study compared 10 expert high school and 10 novice middle school basketball coaches as they planned for a 30 minute practice session on the "give and go play". The coaches were provided 30 minutes to plan their practice session during which time they were instructed to "think aloud" and verbalize all thoughts. All verbalizations were audiotaped, transcribed, and analyzed using the Modified Coding Planning System (MCPS). The MCPS was used to identify the information sources or cues used by coaches to plan and the planning decisions that coaches made during planning. Additionally, a Goal Structure Analysis (GSA) was performed on verbal protocols to describe the problem solving strategies employed by coaches during planning. The findings indicated that experts and novices did not differ significantly regarding the frequency of cue requests and planning decisions. However, GSA indicated that experts and novices exhibited qualitatively different planning behavior. Experts focused attention more so on information cues about the skill levels, abilities, and characteristics of players than novices. As a result experts were more deliberate planners requiring 60% more time to plan than novices. Experts focused their attention, more so than novices, on establishing objectives for the practice session, developing instructional methods designed to facilitate the achievement of the objectives, and strategies for evaluating players attainment of the objectives. Finally, analyses of goal structures indicated that experts have housed in memory more instructional routines and alternatives than novices accrued during many years of coaching experience. Because of this larger knowledge base experts are confident that their practice plan would be effective.

  • COACHES CORNER

  • The Use of Sports Analogies in Coaching and Counseling Athletes Eric S. Lasser — Sports analogizing, which compares a sports situation to another experience, is a valuable technique available to coaches and counselors of athletes. This method is presented through consideration of the following topics: definition, significance, goals, sports references, linguistic form, content, function, application, creating analogies, use in groups, special techniques, and areas for continued study. Several detailed instances of sports analogy use are interspersed throughout the text. An additional sample of brief examples is provided. A summary lists 11 key points. The combination of descriptive presentation and hands-on illustration is intended to encourage development and application of this educational device. (228-246)

  • BOOK REVIEWS

  • Sport in the Global Village by Ralph C. Wilcox, Editor, reviewed by Scott K. Douglas (247-251)
  • Sports Marketing: Competitive Business Strategies for Sports, by Christine M. Brooks, reviewed by Brennan L. Schwenk (251-253)
  • Volleyball Game Theory and Drills by Berthold Frohner, reviewed by Benito A. Telesca (253-254)
  • Coaching Swimming Successfully, by Dick Hannula, reviewed by Benito A. Telesca (255-256)
  • Warm-up and Preparation of Athletes of All Sports, by Zoltan Tenke and Andy Higgins and Medicine Ball Training: A Complete Book of Medicine Ball Exercises for Coaches of All Sports by Zoltan Tenke and Andy Higgins, reviewed by Cory Foster (257-258)
  • Sports Injury Care, by Thomas E. Abdenour and Alton L. Thygerson, reviewed by David Stuckey (259-261)
  • Pitching Edge (Video) by Tom House, reviewed by Travis Walden (261-262)
  • Laboratory Experiences in Exercise Science, by James D. George, A. Garth Fisher, Pat R. Vehers, reviewed by Darrell Hnizdor (262-263)
  • Football's Best Offensive Playbook, edited by Dwight "Dee" Hawkes, reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (263-264)
  • Staying Power: How to Get the B.S. (or B.A.) Out of College, by Thom Murray and Linda Wiley, reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (264-265)
  • Sports for Children: A Guide for Adults, by James H. Humphrey, reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (266-267)
  • Fundraising for Sport and Recreation, by William F. Stier, Jr., reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (267-269)
  • The Sweet Smell of Pine, by Norm Wilhelmi with Terry Hill, reviewed by Warren K. Simpson (269-270)
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